Major scriptures of ancient India

In ancient times, there were neither offset printing machines nor screen printing facilities. Nor was there the internet, where vast amounts of information on any subject are readily available. Yet, the sages and seers of antiquity—through their dedicated efforts, knowledge, and research—composed and developed numerous scriptures. An overview of some of these key scriptures is presented here.

Ayurveda

The science of Ayurveda developed during the post-Vedic period. Numerous independent treatises were composed on this subject. According to Indian tradition, Ayurveda was first created by Brahma. Brahma imparted this knowledge to Prajapati, Prajapati to the Ashwini Kumars, and the Ashwini Kumars, in turn, passed it on to Indra. It was through Indra that this knowledge spread across the entire world. It is considered one of the four *Upavedas*.

According to some scholars, it is an *Upaveda* (subsidiary Veda) of the Rigveda, while others believe it to be an *Upaveda* of the Atharvaveda. There are three main traditions of Ayurveda: Bharadwaja, Dhanvantari, and Kashyapa. The science of Ayurveda comprises eight branches: *Shalya* (surgery), *Shalakya* (treatment of diseases of the head and neck), *Kayachikitsa* (internal medicine), *Bhuta-vidya* (psychiatry/demonology), *Kaumarabhritya* (pediatrics), *Agada-tantra* (toxicology), *Rasayana* (rejuvenation therapy), and *Vajikarana* (virilification/aphrodisiac therapy). The *Charaka Samhita*, *Sushruta Samhita*, and *Kashyapa Samhita* are its principal texts, upon which numerous scholars subsequently wrote commentaries.

It is believed that the *Charaka Samhita*—the most important treatise on Ayurveda—was originally authored by Agnivesha, a disciple of Atreya Punarvasu. The sage Charaka adapted the text into Sanskrit, which is why it came to be known as the *Charaka Samhita*. It is also said that Charaka and Patanjali were the same person. The text is believed to date back to the 5th century BCE.

Chemistry

The origins of chemistry are traced back to the Vedic era. In ancient texts, the term *rasa* in the context of chemistry referred to mercury (*parada*). Mercury was regarded as the semen of Lord Shiva. Various types of minerals were studied within the discipline of chemistry. By the Vedic period, numerous minerals had been discovered, and their practical application had already begun. However, the Buddhist scholar Nagarjuna made the most significant contributions in this field. He lived approximately between 280 and 320 CE. He made a new discovery in which metals such as copper could be transformed into gold through the use of mercury.

*Rasaratnakara* is one of the renowned texts on chemistry. It was authored by Nagarjuna. Although it originally comprised eight chapters, only four have survived. It primarily describes methods for the purification and calcination of metals, the extraction of pure mercury, and the preparation of *bhasma* (calcined ash).

The book ‘Rasahridayatantra’ written by the famous chemist Shri Govind Bhagwatpada who was the guru of Shankaracharya is also quite popular. Apart from this, books like Rasendrachudamani, Rasprakasudhakar Rasarnav, Rassar etc. are also counted among the books of chemistry.

Astrology

Astrology is an integral part of Vedic literature. It involves an in-depth study of the positions of the Sun, Moon, Earth, constellations, seasons, months, and solar paths (*ayan*), among other celestial elements. A key text on this subject is the *Vedanga Jyotisha*, which is believed to have been composed around 1200 BCE. Aryabhata is regarded as the foremost scholar of mathematical astronomy. According to estimates, he was born in 476 CE in Patna (Kusumpura). At the age of just 23, he authored the famous astronomical treatise known as the ‘Aryabhatiya’. This work comprises 121 verses and is divided into four sections: Gitikapada, Ganitapada, Kalakriyapada, and Golapada.

A discussion on Indian astronomy would be incomplete without mentioning Varahamihira. He lived during the early 6th century CE. He authored four renowned texts—*Panchasiddhantika*, *Brihat-Jataka*, *Brihat-Yatra*, and *Brihat-Samhita*—which aid in understanding astronomy.

Mathematics

Mathematics has held special significance in India since ancient times. It is well known that zero and the decimal system were discovered in India; this is an invaluable gift from India to the world. This discovery eliminated mathematical complexities. Mathematics is primarily divided into three branches: arithmetic, algebra, and geometry.

Arithmetic was established in an advanced form during the Vedic period. The *Yajurveda* contains references to numbers ranging from one up to ten *kharabs* (one trillion). These numbers could also be written using characters.

In simple terms, algebra involves determining an unknown number by formulating an equation that relates it to known numbers. There was once a dispute regarding the origin of algebra; some scholars believed the credit for its invention belonged to the Greek scholar Diophantus. However, it has now been established that Indian algebra developed independently, and the credit for this goes to the Indian scholar Aryabhata (446 CE).

Geometry was also discovered during the Vedic era. The ancient name for this discipline is *Shulva-vidya* or *Shulva-vigyan*. An examination and study of the sacrificial halls (*yajnashalas*), altars (*vedikas*), and fire pits (*kundas*) unearthed at various archaeological sites reveal that they were constructed based on geometric principles. *Brahmasphuta-siddhanta*, *Navashati*, *Ganita-tilaka*, *Bijaganita*, *Ganita-sara-sangraha*, and *Ganita-kaumudi* are among the major treatises on mathematics.

Kama Shastra

The concept of *Purushartha* holds great significance in Indian society. There are four *Purusharthas*: *Dharma*, *Artha*, *Kama*, and *Moksha*. *Kama* occupies the third place among them. Initially, Nandi authored a *Kama Shastra* comprising 1,000 chapters, which was later condensed into 150 chapters by Babhravya. The most renowned text associated with *Kama Shastra* is the *Kama Sutra*, authored by Vatsyayana. This text comprises 36 chapters that describe the Indian way of life and offers a fascinating account of the 64 arts. Another renowned work is the *Kuttanimata*, which takes the form of a short poetic composition. The *Rati-Rahasya*, authored by Kokkaka Pandit, is also highly acclaimed.

Musicology

In the Indian tradition, Lord Shiva is regarded as the primal master of music and dance. It is said that Narada acquired the knowledge of music from Lord Shiva himself. Numerous treatises exist on this subject, such as *Naradashiksha*, *Raganirupana*, *Panchamasarasamhita*, and *Sangitamakaranda*.

Among the famous masters of music, Umamaheshwar, Bharat, Nandi, Vasuki, Narad, Vyas etc. are counted. According to Bharat’s Natyashastra, while song originated from Samveda, Yajurveda started Abhinaya (dance).

Theology

In ancient times, the governance system was based on religion. Major religious experts Vairavanas, Atri, Ushana, Kanva, Kashyap, Gargya, Chyavana, Brihaspati, Bharadwaja etc. have discussed various principles and forms of religion. Its place is first among the four stages of effort.

Compendiums written in the later period provide a description of the entire religious order of that time. In *Smriti* texts such as the *Manusmriti*, *Yajnavalkya Smriti*, *Parashara Smriti*, *Narada Smriti*, and *Brihaspati Smriti*, various aspects of social life are interpreted from a religious perspective, and specific rules are also propounded.

Economics (Artha-shastra)

*Artha* (material prosperity) holds the second place among the four *Purusharthas* (aims of human life). It is recorded in the Mahabharata that Brahma composed a treatise on *Artha-shastra* comprising one hundred thousand sections. Subsequently, Shiva (Vishalaksha) condensed it to ten thousand sections, Indra to five thousand, Brihaspati to three thousand, and Ushanas to one thousand.

The *Arthashastra* does not deal solely with financial matters; rather, it offers an extensive account of politics, the science of statecraft (*Dandaniti*), and ethical precepts. The most renowned treatise on this subject is Kautilya’s *Arthashastra*, authored by Chanakya. Chanakya is believed to have lived around the fourth century.

Kautilya’s *Arthashastra* offers comprehensive teachings on *Dharma* (righteousness), *Artha* (material prosperity), politics, *Dandaniti* (statecraft and penal code), and more. It is divided into fifteen *Adhikaranas* (sections). The text expounds its subject matter by drawing upon various disciplines—such as the Vedas, Vedangas, Itihasa, Puranas, Dharmashastras, economics, and astrology—and by incorporating the views of numerous ancient economists. Other significant texts in this genre include the *Kamandakiya Nitisara*, *Nitivakyamrita*, and *Laghu-arthaniti*.

Treatise on Technology

The ‘Bhrigu-Shilpa-Samhita’ describes 16 sciences and 64 technologies. Engineering technologies comprised three ‘sections’. In the book titled ‘Hindi Shilpashastra’, Krishnaji Damodar Vazhe has provided a list of 400 texts related to technology; some of these are as follows—

Vishwamedinikosh, Shankhasmriti, Shilpdipika, Vasturajvallabh, Bhrigusanhita, Mayamatam, Mansar, Aparajitprichcha, Samarangansutradhar, Kashyapsanhita, Brihatparashariya-Krishi, Nisarah, Shigri, Saur Sukta, Manushalaya Chandrika, Rajgrih Nirman, Durgvidhan, Vastusvidya, Yudhjayarnav.
Among the 18 ancient Sanskrit texts related to technology, ‘Kashyapashilpam’ is considered to be the most ancient.

The Sanskrit texts related to ancient mining and mining are – ‘Ratnapariksha’, Loharnaav, Dhatukalp, Lohapradeep, Mahavajrabhairavtantra and Pashanvichar.

‘Nardashilpashashtram’ is the book of Shilpashastra.

Other Shastras

Apart from these, there are other major Shastras, primarily including Nyaya Shastra, Yoga Shastra, Vastu Shastra, Samudrika Shastra, Natya Shastra, Kavya Shastra, Alankara Shastra, and Niti Shastra.